David Hume (1711-1776)
- Strong empiricist who believed that every effect has a cause
- Hume argued the true value of this assertion cannot be deduced in a priori fashion,
but only from experience, and only as a subjective necessity
- Hume awakens Kant from his slumbers
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
- Critique of Pure Reason
- Perception is an active process, the mind contributes to our reality.
- Kant agrees with empiricists regarding innate ideas not being viable
- However he believes that we have the acquisition of a priori knowledge
Offered a solution of Transcendental Idealism
States that there are two domains of knowledge.
External world: Objects in a state independent of human experience
Inner or phenomenal world: The mind's transformation of the outer world.
The mind localizes its experiences in space and time in intuition
Space: Not an objective, empirical property of the world. No empirical perception can give
us the idea of ’space’. It is the subjective and logical precondition for representation of
objects.
Time: Not an empirical sensation, but a logical, a priori structuring principle. We cannot
represent phenomena without the notion of time, but we can represent time empty of
phenomena, therefore the idea of time is logically necessary.
- Our mind structures the outer world in a way which is interpreted by the inner wold.
- Every perception is
1) Raw Sense Data
2) The organizing and structuring of data by the mind
To experience a (physical) world of objects, we must be able to distinguish the temporal order of
our experiences from the temporal order of events.
Law of Specific nerve energies (Believed in the 19th century)
- Each sensory nerve conveys only one sense which results in consciousness.
Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)
- Adopted doctrine of physiological mechanism
Believing that all physiological processes are to be undersood through physical and chemical processes.
Vs
Vitalism
-All living organisms have a nonphysical lifeforce.
Helmholtz believed that energy is conserved and released based on mechanistic principles
- Tested reaction time on frogs (Neural signalling)
Time needed to process signal
1. Sending signal
2. Transmit message to nerves
3. Time required for perception in the brain
Helmholtz began studying vision.
- Physical: Eye as an optical instrument
- Physiological: How an image on the retina conveys signals to the brain (Sensations)
- Psychological: How these sensations could be construed to meaningful perceptions.
Found imperfections in the eye which gave more Creedence to Kant
Developed the trichromatic theory
Helmholtz disagreed with Kant (spatial perception determined mainly by innate intuitions
& categories; Nativism view) and believed sensation was innate but that perceptual
processes are acquired through experience & learning (empiricist idea)
- Helmoltz believed that sensation was innate put perceptual processes are acquired through experience.
Ebbinghaus illusion: Our brain makes judgements about size using adjacent objects.
Helmholtz had 2 important contributions to psychology
1) Neurological processes which underpin mental functions can be studied
2) The mind operates via mechanistic principles to create reality
Fechner (1801-1887)
Friday, March 22, 2024
3950G Chapter 2
Pioneering Philosophers of Mind
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Born to a wealthy aristocratic family, Descartes was gifted from a young age.
After finishing his studies at age 16 he claimed to have known everything he could know from books and proceeded to wonder around Paris.
Eventually he came under the guidance of an intellectual monk, Marin Mersenne, who provided intellectual and spiritual support.
Then Descartes engaged in one of his aspirations, though Catholic, he became a mercenary for the Protestant Dutch army.
Descartes then came under the wing of dutch philosopher Isaac Beeckman who helped shape insights in mathematical theory.
Bored by the Protestant cause, Descartes switched sides to the Catholic forces in southern Germany.
Descartes then had a few "Visions"
1) His first concerned analytic geometry with the development of Cartesian coordinates in which he posits that any point in space could be precisely defined by 3 coordinates x,y and z
2) His second was an expansion of his previous findings. Though a skeptic, Descartes tried to prove that his geometrical findings could be applied to nonmathematical fields.
He argued that the most simple properties of the physical world (Simple Natures) were those whose existence could not be analyzed or doubted. Our sensory impressions may seem obvious but maybe incredibly misleading.
He argued that only 2 physical properties were Simple Natures
1) Extension: The occupation of physical space
2) Motion: The movement across physical space
All physical phenomena could be explained in terms of these two properties.
Galileo (1564-1642) proposed a similar finding.
3 Primary qualities: Shape, Quantity and Motion
When the Primary qualities interact with primary qualities of primary qualities of sensory organs then Secondary qualties (sights, sounds etc ) arise.
Descartes was reluctant to publish his works after the arrest of Galileo so much of his work was published after death.
Descartes physics honoured Democritus in the atomic theory. However he denied that atoms moved in a void.
Descarte saw the universe as composed of 3 different kinds of material particles.
One particle leaves no empty space as this space is refilled by other particles.
The 3 kinds of elements are fire, air and earth. Air particles and fire particles were to small to see.
Air particles are between everything and vibrate in a column to account for sight.
In anantomy, Descartes thought the cerebrospinal fluid as being animal spirits and he falsely thought nerves to be hollow and would send animal spirits in responses to tugs initiated by sensory organs. Though false this is very close to how reflexes actually operate.
Descartes also thought that this could be possible via an acquired response from previous stimuli through learning.
Also recognized that external stimuli may affect behaviour through these animal spirits.
In wakefulness these spirits are maximally used, in sleep, they are controlled for the most part.
Much in aline with Aristotle's distinction of souls, Descartes opined that nonhumans could be completely understood through mechanistic terms (Automata).
Humans on the other hand had the capacity for rational much akin to Aristotle's rational soul.
Thinking was the only thing that could not be doubted. "Je pense donc je suis" One's mind is the only thing undoubtable.
Descartes concluded that innate ideas were independent of these sensory experiences but derived from the nature of the thinking soul.
3 innate ideas: My finite thinking, God, and my body.
This sharp distinction between mind and body is referred as dualism.
Added that the important phenomena are the result of an interaction between mind and body.
Commonly referred to as interactive dualism.
Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618-1680) was a correspondent of Descartes who proved to be philosophically knowledgable in her own right, questioning his theory of mind and body and how an immaterial mind could interact with a material soul.
- Descartes response was that a body without a soul is under complete mechanistic control of external stimuli while a soul without a body would be conscious, but only of its innate ideas (Avicenna's floating man).
Speculated that the pineal gland was where sensations from the divided body were unified.
The mind's conscious experiences of these spirits are called the passions.
John Locke and the Empiricists
Locke adopted many of Descartes ideas but based them into an empiricist theory.
- Did not accept Descartes idea of innate ideas and denied that the mind is always active.
Locke was influenced by the intellectual atmosphere of his time and became a follower of Robert Boyle
- Eventually befriended the lord Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper through being his personal physician.
Soon Cooper committed treason against Charles II by declaring the parliament should not allow the younger catholic brother James to succeed. Locke had to flee due to his relations with Cooper and went to Holland under the pseudonym Dr. van der Linden.
Locke Published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in which he professed his empiricist "Tabla rasa" views stating that experience is how all knowledge is founded.
The mind has 2 types of experiences
Sensations: Of objects of the external world
Reflections: Of the mind's own operations, produce memories
Immediate knowledge is reffered to as intuitive knowledge
Demonstrative knowledge is found through reasoning
Sensitive knowledge (the largest according to Locke) Is composed of patterns and experiences.
Association of ideas Is the linking or combining of ideas
First we produce simple ideas and after experience we produce complex ideas.
Locke expanded on Hobbes's ideas that society is formed merely through social constructs but that social constructs were positive and rational.
Leibniz (1646-1716)
Developed a mathematical calculating machine, binary arithmetic, and infinitesimal calculus.
Disagreed with Locke and Descartes
-Leibniz stated that the world was not made of inanimate particles but rather animate ones called monads.
-The most numerous were bare monads who had the least amount of awarness. Comparable to people in deep sleep.
Then a level higher were sentient monads with capacities for sensation and perception of material objects and memory
- Higher were rational monads capable of becoming the soul or mind
Apperception: Was the consciousness of the rational monads
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Born to a wealthy aristocratic family, Descartes was gifted from a young age.
After finishing his studies at age 16 he claimed to have known everything he could know from books and proceeded to wonder around Paris.
Eventually he came under the guidance of an intellectual monk, Marin Mersenne, who provided intellectual and spiritual support.
Then Descartes engaged in one of his aspirations, though Catholic, he became a mercenary for the Protestant Dutch army.
Descartes then came under the wing of dutch philosopher Isaac Beeckman who helped shape insights in mathematical theory.
Bored by the Protestant cause, Descartes switched sides to the Catholic forces in southern Germany.
Descartes then had a few "Visions"
1) His first concerned analytic geometry with the development of Cartesian coordinates in which he posits that any point in space could be precisely defined by 3 coordinates x,y and z
2) His second was an expansion of his previous findings. Though a skeptic, Descartes tried to prove that his geometrical findings could be applied to nonmathematical fields.
He argued that the most simple properties of the physical world (Simple Natures) were those whose existence could not be analyzed or doubted. Our sensory impressions may seem obvious but maybe incredibly misleading.
He argued that only 2 physical properties were Simple Natures
1) Extension: The occupation of physical space
2) Motion: The movement across physical space
All physical phenomena could be explained in terms of these two properties.
Galileo (1564-1642) proposed a similar finding.
3 Primary qualities: Shape, Quantity and Motion
When the Primary qualities interact with primary qualities of primary qualities of sensory organs then Secondary qualties (sights, sounds etc ) arise.
Descartes was reluctant to publish his works after the arrest of Galileo so much of his work was published after death.
Descartes physics honoured Democritus in the atomic theory. However he denied that atoms moved in a void.
Descarte saw the universe as composed of 3 different kinds of material particles.
One particle leaves no empty space as this space is refilled by other particles.
The 3 kinds of elements are fire, air and earth. Air particles and fire particles were to small to see.
Air particles are between everything and vibrate in a column to account for sight.
In anantomy, Descartes thought the cerebrospinal fluid as being animal spirits and he falsely thought nerves to be hollow and would send animal spirits in responses to tugs initiated by sensory organs. Though false this is very close to how reflexes actually operate.
Descartes also thought that this could be possible via an acquired response from previous stimuli through learning.
Also recognized that external stimuli may affect behaviour through these animal spirits.
In wakefulness these spirits are maximally used, in sleep, they are controlled for the most part.
Much in aline with Aristotle's distinction of souls, Descartes opined that nonhumans could be completely understood through mechanistic terms (Automata).
Humans on the other hand had the capacity for rational much akin to Aristotle's rational soul.
Thinking was the only thing that could not be doubted. "Je pense donc je suis" One's mind is the only thing undoubtable.
Descartes concluded that innate ideas were independent of these sensory experiences but derived from the nature of the thinking soul.
3 innate ideas: My finite thinking, God, and my body.
This sharp distinction between mind and body is referred as dualism.
Added that the important phenomena are the result of an interaction between mind and body.
Commonly referred to as interactive dualism.
Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618-1680) was a correspondent of Descartes who proved to be philosophically knowledgable in her own right, questioning his theory of mind and body and how an immaterial mind could interact with a material soul.
- Descartes response was that a body without a soul is under complete mechanistic control of external stimuli while a soul without a body would be conscious, but only of its innate ideas (Avicenna's floating man).
Speculated that the pineal gland was where sensations from the divided body were unified.
The mind's conscious experiences of these spirits are called the passions.
John Locke and the Empiricists
Locke adopted many of Descartes ideas but based them into an empiricist theory.
- Did not accept Descartes idea of innate ideas and denied that the mind is always active.
Locke was influenced by the intellectual atmosphere of his time and became a follower of Robert Boyle
- Eventually befriended the lord Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper through being his personal physician.
Soon Cooper committed treason against Charles II by declaring the parliament should not allow the younger catholic brother James to succeed. Locke had to flee due to his relations with Cooper and went to Holland under the pseudonym Dr. van der Linden.
Locke Published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in which he professed his empiricist "Tabla rasa" views stating that experience is how all knowledge is founded.
The mind has 2 types of experiences
Sensations: Of objects of the external world
Reflections: Of the mind's own operations, produce memories
Immediate knowledge is reffered to as intuitive knowledge
Demonstrative knowledge is found through reasoning
Sensitive knowledge (the largest according to Locke) Is composed of patterns and experiences.
Association of ideas Is the linking or combining of ideas
First we produce simple ideas and after experience we produce complex ideas.
Locke expanded on Hobbes's ideas that society is formed merely through social constructs but that social constructs were positive and rational.
Leibniz (1646-1716)
Developed a mathematical calculating machine, binary arithmetic, and infinitesimal calculus.
Disagreed with Locke and Descartes
-Leibniz stated that the world was not made of inanimate particles but rather animate ones called monads.
-The most numerous were bare monads who had the least amount of awarness. Comparable to people in deep sleep.
Then a level higher were sentient monads with capacities for sensation and perception of material objects and memory
- Higher were rational monads capable of becoming the soul or mind
Apperception: Was the consciousness of the rational monads
God was the Supreme Monad and humans could dimly appreciate this (ALA Spinoza)
Because of this Leibniz is refered as a rationalist.
Ideas are innate to us he believed these are necessary truths
Consciousness was formed through minute perceptions of these monads
Locke's views became incredibly important especially in England
There they became known as British associationism
George Berkley then used Lockes approach to analyze depth perception through and empiricist view.
David Hartley argued that ideas are the subjective results of minute vibrtions in specific locations of the brain.
Monday, July 3, 2023
Song of the Day #6, July 3
Ecco2k: Calcium
It's so hard to find but so easy to find
(Lost my shine, I star and cross my eyes)
And my heart is blind, I star and cross my eyes
(Lost my shine, I star and cross my eyes)
Art Pop/Cloud Rap/R&B
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jfx106XZsN0&pp=ygUOY2FsY2l1bSBlY2NvMms%3D
Sunday, July 2, 2023
Song of the Day #5: Hailu Mergia & Dahlak Band: Sinyayehu
Song of the Day #5, July 2
Hailu Mergia & Dahlak Band: Sinyayehu
Jazz/Funk/Ethiopian Jazz
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0D5NnUFfC4&ab_channel=AwesomeTapesFromAfrica
Saturday, July 1, 2023
Song of the Day #4, July 1st
Song of the Day #4, July 1st
Neil Young: Heart of Gold (1972)
I want to give
I've been a miner
For a heart of gold
It's these expressions
I never give
That keep me searching
For a heart of gold
Country Rock/Soft Rock/Folk Rock
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7eB7Wns1-M&pp=ygUNaGVhcnQgb2YgZ29sZA%3D%3D
Friday, June 30, 2023
Song of the Day #3, June 3
Song of the Day #3, June 30
Björk:Pagan Poetry (2001)
On the surface simplicity
But the darkest pit in me
And it's pagan poetry
Thursday, June 29, 2023
Song of the Day #2, June 29
Song of the Day #2 June 29
Peter Gabriel: Games Without Frontiers
If looks could kill, they probably will
In games without frontiers, war without tears
Art Rock/Pop
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